The word “shaman” is now commonly used in anthropological and popular discourse to describe religious figures in shamanistic cultures. However, the origin and proper understanding of the word have been the subject of debate for centuries. In this article, Berthold Laufer traces the historical and linguistic origins of the term, addressing various theories and misconceptions, particularly those linking it to Indian origins.
Origins of the Term “Shaman”:
Laufer begins by establishing that the word “shaman” comes from the Tungusian languages of Siberia. It was recorded by Russian explorers in the 17th century, specifically during the expeditions of Cossack conquerors and Russian travelers into Siberia. The word was first brought to Europe by Dutch explorers like E. Ysbrants Ides, who accompanied a Russian embassy to China in the late 1600s. In early accounts, it was noted that the Tungus people referred to their religious practitioners as “schaman” or “schamam,” terms meaning “sorcerer” or “devil worshipper.”
The Tungusian word saman or caman (with various forms in related dialects) was native to these peoples of northern Asia and served as their name for religious leaders who performed rituals and acted as mediators between the spiritual and physical worlds. Shamans were known for their ability to enter trances and communicate with spirits, often using ritual equipment such as drums and costumes with masks or animal parts.
Misconceptions and the Indian Theory:
Despite the clear origins of the term in Tungusian languages, early European scholars, influenced by their limited knowledge of non-Western cultures, proposed that the word had an Indian origin. This idea was first advanced in the 18th century and gained traction throughout the 19th century due to the influence of romanticism and Orientalist scholarship.
The theory suggested that the word “shaman” derived from the Sanskrit or Pali term “śramaṇa,” meaning an ascetic or Buddhist monk. The connection was based on the superficial similarity in the sound of the two words and the belief that Buddhism had influenced the cultures of Central Asia, including the Tungus people. This hypothesis was supported by scholars like Friedrich von Schlegel, who published works on Indian culture, and the French sinologist J.-P. Abel-Remusat, who proposed that the Tungus adopted Buddhist terminology from Indian missionaries. This idea was furthered by figures like Max Müller, a prominent 19th-century scholar, who argued that shamanism in Siberia had evolved from Indian Buddhism through the influence of the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhist traditions.
Linguistic and Cultural Refutation:
Laufer carefully deconstructs this Indian-origin theory, noting that it arose during a period when Sanskrit and Buddhist studies were still developing, and scholars often overestimated the influence of Indian culture on surrounding regions. He explains that the superficial resemblance between śramaṇa and saman is purely coincidental and that there is no evidence of direct contact between the Tungus people and Indian Buddhists. Additionally, the functions of a shaman in Siberian culture were fundamentally different from those of a Buddhist monk. While the śramaṇa or Buddhist ascetic focused on renunciation, meditation, and ethical discipline, the Tungus shaman was a ritual specialist who engaged with spirits, performed healing, and led communal ceremonies.
Laufer further explains that Buddhist missionaries, though influential in parts of Central Asia and Tibet, never reached the remote regions of Siberia where the Tungus people lived. Thus, it is highly improbable that the Tungus would have borrowed such a central term from Buddhism without any documented historical or cultural contact.
Shamanism as a Native Institution:
Laufer emphasizes that the practice of shamanism is native to the peoples of northern Asia, particularly the Tungus, Mongols, and Turkic-speaking groups. Shamanism is an ancient religious system that predates the arrival of Buddhism in Asia. It involves the belief in a multi-layered cosmos, where shamans act as intermediaries between the human world and the spiritual realms, including the sky, earth, and underworld. Shamans achieve altered states of consciousness through rituals that involve drumming, dancing, and the use of hallucinogens or other means of inducing trance states.
The word “saman” or “caman” was likely shared among related cultures across the vast region extending from Lappland in Europe to the Bering Sea in the far east of Siberia. In this respect, Laufer points out that other neighboring groups, such as the Mongols and Turks, have similar words to describe their ritual specialists. For example, the Turkic word kam or xam (used to describe a shaman) is documented as early as the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–906 CE) in references to the Kirghiz people. The word kam appears in the Uighur language and in the Codex Cumanicus, a 14th-century Turkic manuscript.
Modern Etymology:
Laufer also explores more recent philological studies, such as the work of Hungarian linguist J. Nemeth, who analyzed the sound shifts and correspondences between the Turkish and Tungus languages. Nemeth demonstrated that the Tungusian saman and Turkish kam were likely cognates, meaning that both words originated from a common linguistic source in the ancient languages of Central Asia. This finding supports the argument that shamanism, along with its terminology, developed independently in the region long before the spread of Buddhism or other external influences.
Laufer argues that the persistence of the Indian-origin theory in some dictionaries and scholarly works is a result of the romanticism of early European scholars, who were eager to link all non-Western cultures back to India, which they regarded as the cradle of spiritual wisdom. He concludes that the word “shaman” should be recognized as a native term of the Tungus and related peoples, with no connection to Indian religion or language.
Laufer’s study corrects a long-standing misunderstanding about the origin of the word “shaman” and situates it firmly within the context of Siberian and Central Asian cultures. The association of the term with Indian śramaṇas is debunked as an artifact of 19th-century Orientalist scholarship. Instead, shamanism is shown to be an ancient, indigenous religious practice in northern Asia, with deep roots in the languages and traditions of the Tungus, Mongols, and Turks. Laufer’s article remains a valuable contribution to the fields of anthropology, linguistics, and the study of religion, emphasizing the importance of careful philological analysis in understanding cultural history.
